There is growing concern among stakeholders such as livestock farmers, hunters, and land managers about how wolves navigate and feed within the human-dominated Dutch landscape. Understanding what wolves eat, where, and when, is essential to inform both public debate and effective policy. Robust, science-based insights into wolf feeding behavior can help predict trends and mitigate conflicts.

To that end, researchers carry out a comprehensive, multi-year dietary analysis of wolves in the Netherlands. They combine environmental DNA (eDNA) techniques with traditional microscopic analysis of prey remains—such as hairs and bones found in wolf scat—to build a detailed picture of their diet.

Scope of the Study

In 2023, 735 wolf scats were collected and analyzed. Of these, 624 were used to determine dietary composition based on frequency of occurrence (%FO), and 427 were used to estimate consumed biomass (%BM).

The findings reveal that wild ungulates form the core of the Dutch wolf’s diet. The most common prey species were:

• Roe deer – 59% FO, 35% BM
• Wild boar – 37% FO, 29% BM
• Red deer – 18% FO, 8% BM

Domesticated livestock also featured prominently, accounting for 30% of the scats by occurrence and 23% of the consumed biomass. Of this, cattle and sheep were the most frequently represented (21% and 8% FO, respectively).

Other prey included birds (12% FO), lagomorphs (11% FO), and small mammals (10% FO).

Spatial Variation: Veluwe vs. Drenthe

The study found notable regional differences in diet between wolf packs in the Veluwe and Drenthe:

• In Drenthe, cattle made up 37% of the consumed biomass.
• In the Veluwe, wild ungulates dominated, accounting for a striking 96% of the biomass consumed.

In Drenthe, the presence of cattle in the diet is believed to be largely due to calves or carcasses from free-ranging conservation herds used in nature management. However, due to the nature of scat analysis, it is not always possible to determine whether an animal was killed by wolves or scavenged after natural death.

These differences reflect the contrasting availability of wild prey. The Veluwe hosts a relatively complete community of wild ungulates, allowing wolves to rely almost entirely on natural prey. In contrast, Drenthe has fewer wild ungulate species, leading wolves to supplement their diet with domestic animals—especially where they are accessible in open, unmanaged grazing systems.

Seasonal Shifts in Diet

Seasonal variation was also observed. During the wolf birth season (April–June), which coincides with the birthing period of many wild ungulates, wolves shifted from consuming adult ungulates to targeting more vulnerable young animals, such as wild boar piglets and red deer calves.

Conclusion

The study underscores the opportunistic and adaptive feeding behavior of wolves and offers valuable ecological insights into how they function within fragmented, human-influenced landscapes. This knowledge can directly support science-based policymaking, reduce conflict, and facilitate informed dialogue on the future of wolves in the Netherlands.

Report: Onderzoek naar het voedingsgedrag van wolven (Canis lupus) in Nederland 2023 (in Dutch)

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Rewilding Meets Reality

As wolves return to landscapes long emptied of large predators, tension often follows. Farmers worry about their herds. Conservationists worry about coexistence. And both sides search for facts amid fear and folklore.

Now, a groundbreaking study in Poland’s Warta River Mouth National Park sheds new light on what wolves really eat—and the results may surprise you.

Despite free-ranging livestock grazing unprotected across the wetlands, wolves in this region overwhelmingly preferred wild prey. In fact, over 80% of their diet consisted of wild ungulates like roe deer and wild boar. Livestock, including cattle and dogs, made up only 3.4% of the biomass consumed.

This new evidence challenges the assumption that wolves inevitably turn to easy livestock targets when available—and could shape how Europe manages wolf-livestock conflict in a rewilding era.

The Setting: A Mosaic of Wetlands and Wildlife

Stretching across 500 square kilometers of western Poland, the Warta River Mouth (WRM) is a tapestry of humid grasslands, farm fields, floodplains, and patches of pine forest. The heart of this landscape—the Warta Mouth National Park—is a haven for waterfowl and part of the Natura 2000 network and the Ramsar Convention.

But the park is also home to something larger, wilder, and far more controversial: the grey wolf (Canis lupus).

In summer months, some 4,000 cattle and 700 horses roam freely here with no fencing, herding, or protection measures. It’s the kind of scene that would seem tailor-made for conflict—except the data tell a different story.

Tracking the Top Predator

From 2020 to 2022, a team of Polish researchers led by Dr. Robert Mysłajek of the University of Warsaw deployed a mix of genetic fingerprinting, camera trapping, and field tracking to monitor the region’s wolves.

They identified two distinct wolf family groups living within the WRM. Over two years, they collected and analyzed 109 scats (droppings) to determine the wolves’ diet, comparing their findings with seven other regions in Central Europe.

Their results were clear: even in a landscape filled with livestock, wolves mostly ignored domestic animals, focusing instead on natural prey.

What’s on the Menu?

The roe deer led the list, making up nearly 60% of the food biomass. Wild boar followed at 20.5%, despite recent culls due to African Swine Fever. Wolves also consumed medium-sized mammals like European beavers and hares, which accounted for 14.5% of the diet.

Cattle made up just 3%, and dogs only 0.4%—figures so low they raise an important question: Why aren’t wolves eating livestock when it seems so easy?

Nature’s Nuance: More Than Availability

The study’s authors suggest several reasons why wolves may avoid livestock, even when it’s abundant and unprotected:

1. Behavioral Traits of Livestock:

Breeds such as Limousin, Hereford, and Red Angus—common in WRM—are muscular and often horned. These traits may deter wolves, especially compared to smaller, dehorned dairy breeds more common elsewhere.

2. Natural Herding Instincts:

Cattle and horses in WRM graze semi-wild and form defensive herds, mimicking behavior of wild ungulates. This natural grouping may confuse or challenge predators.

3. Dead Calves Left in the Field:

With limited human supervision, stillbirths and early calf deaths (up to 2.3% in some breeds) may result in carrion left unattended. Wolves may scavenge rather than hunt.

4. High Wild Prey Abundance:

The WRM region has dense populations of roe deer and wild boar, meaning wolves don’t need to risk attacking livestock.

Conflict—Or Coexistence?

Only three cattle calves were confirmed as wolf food during the two-year study, and even those cases may involve scavenging. No predation on horses was recorded. Despite the presence of domestic dogs in wolf scat, no formal complaints were filed, suggesting the dogs were strays or free-ranging.

These findings suggest that the wolf-livestock conflict in WRM is more perception than reality. In fact, wolves may be delivering unrecognized ecosystem services, such as reducing populations of free-ranging dogs that harm wildlife, or scavenging disease-carrying carcasses that would otherwise linger in the landscape.

Rewilding Implications: A Case for Caution and Context

As wolves recolonize parts of Europe—from the Netherlands to Denmark to Belgium—the WRM study provides a valuable case study. It shows that:

• Wolves do not automatically target livestock, even when it’s abundant and unprotected
• Ecological context matters—from prey availability to livestock breed and behavior
• Management decisions must be based on local data, not assumptions or general fears

This doesn’t mean wolves never attack livestock. But it does mean lethal control or fear-driven policies may be unjustified—and potentially harmful to long-term conservation goals.

A Model for Future Coexistence?

The WRM wolves may be doing more than surviving—they may be showing us how rewilding and agriculture can coexist, even in crowded European landscapes.

Their diet is diverse, their presence stable, and their conflicts minimal. If supported with adaptive management, continued research, and public education, this model could help rebuild trust between people and predators.

In an age when ecological recovery is as much about social acceptance as biological success, the WRM wolves remind us that nature can adapt—if we let it.

The post Wolves return—without attacking livestock appeared first on Rewilding Academy.

The Historical Context: Wolves and the Scottish Ecosystem

Wolves once roamed freely across Scotland, playing a pivotal role in maintaining ecological balance. As apex predators, they regulated the populations of large herbivores, particularly red deer (Cervus elaphus). However, extensive hunting and habitat loss led to the extinction of wolves in Scotland by the late 17th century, with the last recorded wolf killed in 1680. Their absence has had cascading effects on the ecosystem, most notably on deer populations.

The Deer Dilemma: Overgrazing and Woodland Decline

In the absence of natural predators, red deer populations have flourished, reaching numbers as high as 400,000. This overabundance has led to significant overgrazing, impeding the regeneration of native woodlands. Young saplings are often consumed before they can mature, and existing trees suffer from bark stripping. Consequently, Scotland’s native woodland coverage has dwindled to a mere 4% of the land area, one of the lowest in Europe. This degradation not only affects biodiversity but also reduces the landscape’s capacity to sequester carbon, a critical function in the fight against climate change.

The Proposed Solution: Reintroducing the Grey Wolf

The study by Dominick Spracklen et al. employs ecological modeling to assess the potential impacts of reintroducing grey wolves to the Scottish Highlands. The models suggest that a population of approximately 170 wolves could effectively reduce red deer densities to levels that allow for natural woodland regeneration. This predator-prey dynamic would mirror the ecological processes that occurred before wolves were extirpated.

Carbon Sequestration Potential: A Natural Climate Solution

One of the most compelling findings of the study is the projected increase in carbon sequestration resulting from woodland expansion facilitated by wolf predation on deer. The researchers estimate that the regenerated forests could sequester about 1 million tonnes of CO₂ annually over a century. This figure represents approximately 5% of the UK’s carbon removal target for woodlands to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. Financially, this translates to an annual benefit of £154,000 per wolf, based on current carbon market values.  

Broader Ecological and Societal Benefits

Beyond carbon sequestration, reintroducing wolves could yield a plethora of ecological and societal benefits:

• Biodiversity Enhancement: The resurgence of native woodlands would provide habitats for a multitude of species, fostering greater biodiversity.
• Natural Flood Management: Healthy forests play a crucial role in water regulation, potentially mitigating flood risks.
• Public Health Improvements: A controlled deer population could lead to a decrease in deer-related road accidents and a reduction in the prevalence of Lyme disease, which is associated with deer ticks.
• Economic Opportunities: The presence of wolves could boost ecotourism, attracting wildlife enthusiasts and contributing to the local economy.

Challenges and Considerations: Navigating Human-Wolf Coexistence

While the ecological arguments for wolf reintroduction are compelling, several challenges must be addressed:

• Livestock Predation: Farmers express concerns about potential wolf attacks on livestock, which could lead to economic losses. Implementing robust compensation schemes and preventive measures, such as secure fencing and livestock guardian animals, would be essential.
• Hunting Interests: Deer stalkers and hunting communities fear that reduced deer populations could impact recreational hunting opportunities. Engaging these stakeholders in dialogue and exploring adaptive management strategies would be crucial.
• Public Perception: Wolves have been historically vilified, and lingering fears persist. Comprehensive public education campaigns are necessary to dispel myths and promote understanding of wolves’ ecological roles.
• Legislative and Policy Frameworks: Reintroduction efforts would require alignment with national and international wildlife regulations, necessitating thorough legal considerations.

The Path Forward: A Collaborative Approach

The study emphasizes that any wolf reintroduction initiative must be underpinned by extensive stakeholder engagement and public consultation. Building consensus among conservationists, landowners, farmers, hunters, and the general public is vital for the project’s success. Adaptive management strategies, informed by continuous monitoring and research, would be essential to address emerging challenges and ensure positive outcomes.

Embracing a Holistic Vision for Scotland’s Future

Reintroducing grey wolves to the Scottish Highlands represents more than the return of a species; it symbolizes a commitment to ecological restoration and climate resilience. By reinstating a natural predator, Scotland has the opportunity to rejuvenate its native woodlands, enhance biodiversity, and contribute meaningfully to global carbon sequestration efforts. This holistic approach acknowledges the intricate interdependencies within ecosystems and the profound impact of keystone species. As Scotland stands on the cusp of this transformative journey, the howl of the wolf may once again echo through its glens, heralding a new era of harmony between nature and humanity.

The post Return of the Wolf: Restoring Scotland’s Wild Heart appeared first on Rewilding Academy.

Celebrating the Bern Convention’s 45th anniversary, the film underscores the importance of this historic agreement in preserving Europe’s wildlife. Yet, just as the global community aims to protect biodiversity, a proposal threatens to roll back progress by allowing more culling of wolves, putting decades of conservation efforts at risk.

While human-wolf conflicts require careful management, culling disrupts pack structures and can heighten tensions with the livestock industry. Instead of resorting to short-term culling solutions, European countries should focus on long-term strategies for coexistence, blending traditional practices with modern methods to prevent damage and foster sustainable relationships between wolves and rural communities.

New film

Over 300 NGOs, including Io Non Ho Paura Del Lupo and The European Nature Trust, alongside 310,000 supporters, are rallying to protect wolves. The Wolf Within challenges us to rethink our relationship with nature, illustrating the need for harmony between human development and wildlife preservation. It calls on viewers to take action, joining the fight for stricter protections and ensuring the continued survival of wolves across Europe.

In a world that increasingly distances us from the wild, the wolf within symbolises our own deep connection to the natural world. To rewild ourselves is to reclaim lost instincts, to understand that our survival and well-being are intertwined with the health of the ecosystems we inhabit.

From the movie: “It doesn’t matter who we are or where we come from. The steady gaze of the wolf locks onto us, and in that instant, the chains binding us to daily illusions snap. There’s no person, man or woman, who can remain untouched by such an encounter. In the wolf’s gaze lies a connection to something larger than ourselves, a wake-up call to the wild around us, and a calling to the wolf within.“

The film’s message is clear: it is time to rewild our hearts and minds, embracing the wolf not as an enemy but as a vital part of Europe’s natural heritage. The stakes are high, and the time to act is now. To support the cause, viewers are urged to sign the petition and join this critical movement for wildlife conservation.

To watch the film: visit WaterBear.

Add your voice to the petition: Stop wolf hunting in Europe

The post The Wolf Within: Rewilding Ourselves appeared first on Rewilding Academy.

Scientific Challenges

1. Predicting Colonization and Dispersal Dynamics: While we’ve learned much about wolf ecology and habitat preferences, accurately predicting wolf colonization and dispersal patterns in short time intervals remains a complex task. Overcoming this challenge is crucial to understanding their movements as they recolonize new areas.
2. Reducing Hybridization and Disease Transmission: The potential for hybridization with other species, such as dogs, poses a concern as wolves occupy more diverse landscapes. Disease outbreaks, often transmissible from domestic dogs, can significantly impact wolf populations, especially in small, isolated groups.
3. Mitigating and Deterring Wolf–Livestock Conflicts: Wolf predation on livestock is a substantial issue that affects wolf distribution. Minimizing these conflicts and compensating losses is essential for fostering coexistence between wolves and rural communities.

Social Challenges

1. Harvesting Wolves Sustainably While Satisfying Diverse Stakeholders: Managing wolf populations sustainably while satisfying a range of stakeholder interests, including those who may want liberal wolf harvests, can be a contentious issue. Balancing conservation efforts with human concerns remains a challenge.
2. Averting a Reduction in Tolerance for Wolves Due to a Disinterest in Nature: As wolves expand into human-dominated landscapes and interact more frequently with humans, pets, and livestock, tolerance for these animals may decline. Additionally, a growing urban-rural divide in attitudes towards wolf conservation may further complicate efforts.
3. Engaging Diverse Stakeholders in Wolf Conservation to Avoid Management by Ballot Initiative or Legislative and Judicial Decrees: Over recent years, tension and disagreements over wolf management have led to developments that bypass traditional wildlife management processes. This trend, such as management decisions being made through ballot initiatives, can be detrimental to sound conservation practices. Engaging diverse stakeholders and finding common ground will be crucial in addressing these challenges.

The future of wolf conservation in the United States relies on addressing these scientific and social challenges. Enhanced predictive models, increased monitoring for hybridization and disease, and innovative methods to mitigate conflicts with livestock are essential for scientific progress.

Socially, outreach efforts and stakeholder engagement are key to maintaining tolerance for wolves and avoiding ad-hoc management decisions. Wolves play an important role in ecosystems, contributing to the restoration and rewilding of entire landscapes.

Europe

While the primary focus of this analysis has been on the challenges faced by wolves in the United States, it’s important to recognise that similar challenges may arise in other regions worldwide as wolf populations expand. A notable example of this is the recolonization of wolves in Scandinavia and various parts of Europe in recent decades. Unlike their American counterparts, European wolves often occupy landscapes heavily influenced by human activities, leading to increased conflicts with livestock farming and reduced human tolerance towards these apex predators.

Across Europe, wolf recolonization efforts have thrived by fostering early engagement with stakeholder groups and local communities, as well as providing ample resources for population monitoring, conflict prevention, and reimbursement for losses incurred.

It’s worth noting that the strategies proposed for addressing wolf conservation and management challenges in the United States could prove beneficial for other regions experiencing wolf recolonisation. The lessons learned from managing wolf populations in the United States offer valuable insights that can inform global efforts to navigate the complex dynamics of wolf-human coexistence in an ever-changing world.

More information:
The challenges of success: Future wolf conservation and management in the United States
Featured image: Hans Veth/Unsplash

The post Future Challenges in Wolf Recolonisation appeared first on Rewilding Academy.

Marc wants to provide clarity about the return of the wolf, its influence in the food chain, but also about the negative aspects experienced by local livestock farmers.

Marc will also delve into the question of whether one “can still safely visit the forest with a dog?”

Symbiosis between trees and mushrooms: the WoodWideWeb.

Guest speaker for this evening is Pierre de Wit (Emeritus Professor of Phytopathology at Wageningen University). He will tell about the Symbiosis between trees and mushrooms; a woodwide web.

Fungi played an important role in the colonization of the mainland by plants. Fossil finds from millions of years ago have shown that land plants were colonized early by mycorrhizal fungi. A mycorrhiza (literally, fungus root) is a form of coexistence of plant and fungus through the finest branches of the root of a plant and the fungus, in the soil. First, the endomycorrhiza-forming fungi appeared, followed by the ectomycorrhizal-forming fungi, later still the nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium bacteria. In recent years, through research, we have learned more about the forms of communication between trees and mycorrhizal fungi.

A tree population sometimes behaves as a family, with older trees helping the young offspring with nutrients. Mycorrhizal fungi play an important role in this exchange. They connect the roots of trees with each other so that food can be distributed. This will be discussed in more detail during the lecture.

Dutch below

Terugkeer van de wolf in Nederland

Omdat er veel vraag is naar informatie over de wolf organiseert natuurgids en wolvenkenner Marc Wilbers een extra wolvenlezing. Na twee uitverkochte lezingen in oktober en november, wordt er nu nog één in december gegeven.

Marc wil een eerlijk beeld geven over de terugkeer van de wolf. Over zijn invloed in de voedselketen maar ook over de schade die veehouders ondervinden. En… kun je nog wel veilig het bos in met je hond?

De gastspreker van deze avond is Pierre de Wit (emeritus-hoogleraar Fytopathologie v/d Wageningen universiteit). Hij zal vertellen over:

Symbiose tussen bomen en paddenstoelen; een wereldwijd web

Schimmels speelden een belangrijke rol bij de kolonisatie van het vaste land door planten. Uit fossiele vondsten van miljoenen jaren geleden is gebleken dat landplanten al vroeg gekoloniseerd werden door mycorrhizavormende schimmels. Een mycorrhiza (letterlijk, zwamwortel) is een samenlevingsvorm van plant en schimmel via de fijnste vertakkingen van de wortel van een plant en de zwamvlok ondergronds. Eerst verschenen de endomycorrhiza vormende schimmels, later de ectomycorrhizavormende schimmels (leven samen met bomen), nog later de stikstofbindende Rhizobiumbacteriën.

De laatste jaren zijn we door onderzoek steeds meer over de details van de communicatie tussen bomen en de mycorrhiza schimmels te weten gekomen. Een bomen populatie heeft soms de eigenschappen van een gezin, waarbij oude bomen de jonge nakomelingen helpen. Hierbij spelen mycorrhiza schimmels een belangrijke rol. Zij brengen de wortels van bomen met elkaar in contact waarbij er verdeling van voedsel kan plaatsvinden. Tijdens de lezing zal hier dieper op ingegaan worden.

Photo credit: Marc Wilbers

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