Europe is witnessing what appears to be a remarkable wildlife recovery story. After centuries of persecution, habitat loss, and population declines, gray wolves (Canis lupus) are recolonising much of their former range. Today, the estimated population exceeds 21,000 individuals, and wolves are increasingly visible in landscapes across central and western Europe. At first glance, this demographic rebound seems to signal a conservation triumph. Governments and policymakers, interpreting these numbers, have even relaxed legal protections in some regions, granting more flexibility for lethal control and management interventions. However, recent genomic research suggests that the story of European wolves is more complex and far less reassuring than census numbers might imply.

A team of researchers led by Sara Ravagni and colleagues analyzed over 200 whole genomes from wolves across Europe and Türkiye, revealing a mosaic of genetically distinct, isolated populations rather than a single, recovering metapopulation. The study, currently available as a preprint on bioRxiv, highlights that despite the apparent demographic recovery, European wolves remain at significant risk of genetic erosion and inbreeding, which threaten their long-term survival. These findings challenge assumptions that European wolves are now secure and underscore the importance of incorporating genetic data into conservation assessments.

A Mosaic of Wolves

The study focused on five major European wolf populations: the Italian Peninsula, Iberian Peninsula, Dinaric-Balkan, Karelian, and Scandinavian wolves. Each of these populations represents a distinct lineage, largely isolated for thousands of years. Genetic analyses revealed deep divergences among these groups, most tracing back to the late Pleistocene. In practical terms, this means that what looks like a single, recovering species across Europe is in fact a collection of independently evolving lineages, each with its own evolutionary history, vulnerabilities, and genetic identity.

Using advanced genomic tools, the researchers examined effective population size (Ne), a key measure of genetic health that reflects the number of individuals contributing genetically to the next generation. For long-term viability, conservationists generally consider Ne ≥ 500 to be necessary, with Ne ≥ 50 as the short-term minimum to avoid inbreeding depression. Alarmingly, all five European wolf populations studied fell below this threshold, with some, like the Italian Peninsula and Scandinavian wolves, approaching or even below the critical short-term boundary. Inbreeding coefficients were high, particularly in isolated populations, and the proportion of deleterious genetic variants realized within genomes indicated emerging risks of inbreeding depression.

Why Census Counts Can Be Misleading

The findings reveal a key disconnect between visible population recovery and underlying genetic health. While census numbers in Europe are increasing, genomic recovery has not kept pace. Wolves may appear abundant in certain regions, but their genetic diversity—the raw material for long-term adaptation and resilience—is severely constrained. The Italian Peninsula population, for example, shows extensive signs of historical bottlenecks and prolonged isolation, while Scandinavian wolves, founded by just three immigrants from Karelia in the 1980s, display extreme genetic drift and recent inbreeding.

This genetic fragility has practical consequences. Populations with low genetic diversity are less able to adapt to environmental change, disease, or human pressures. Inbreeding depression can manifest as reduced fertility, higher mortality, and increased susceptibility to disease. Even if wolves appear to be recovering numerically, these underlying vulnerabilities make them precariously close to the brink in evolutionary terms.

Legal Protections and Natural Recolonisation

Despite these risks, the natural recolonization of wolves in Europe demonstrates the effectiveness of legal protection and habitat connectivity. Unlike in North America, where active reintroduction programs supported wolf recovery, European wolves have expanded their range largely through natural dispersal from remnant refugial populations in southern and eastern peninsulas. This natural rebound underscores the importance of maintaining legal safeguards, as well as the ecological versatility of wolves, which can thrive in human-modified landscapes when protections are in place.

However, the study warns against complacency. Relaxing protections based solely on apparent population growth could exacerbate genetic risks. Policies that allow increased lethal control or habitat fragmentation threaten to depress already low effective population sizes further, accelerating inbreeding and eroding adaptive potential. The recent extinction of the Sierra Morena wolf population in southern Spain serves as a stark reminder of how quickly isolated, genetically compromised lineages can disappear when conservation measures are relaxed.

The Role of Genomics in Conservation

The European wolf case illustrates the growing importance of genomic data in wildlife conservation. Traditional monitoring methods, including population counts and range mapping, provide only partial information about species health. Genome-wide analyses reveal hidden vulnerabilities that cannot be detected through census data alone. By examining genetic diversity, inbreeding, and the distribution of deleterious variants, scientists can identify populations at risk, guide management interventions, and prioritize conservation resources.

For European wolves, the implications are clear. Each of the five populations analyzed should be treated as a separate management unit, with strategies tailored to its unique genetic and demographic context. Measures could include facilitating connectivity between populations to increase gene flow, protecting critical habitats, and maintaining legal protections until effective population sizes are sufficient to ensure long-term viability.

Conservation Policy and Public Perception

One challenge highlighted by the study is the gap between public perception and biological reality. Wolves are often perceived as overabundant in areas where they are recolonizing landscapes, particularly when they come into conflict with livestock farming. This perception has contributed to political pressure to downlist protections, yet the genomic data indicate that these populations remain genetically vulnerable. Communicating these findings effectively to policymakers and the public is critical for ensuring informed decisions that balance human-wildlife coexistence with long-term conservation objectives.

The research also highlights the broader principle that demographic recovery does not automatically equate to genetic recovery. Wolves may be visibly thriving in terms of numbers and range, but without genetic health, these populations remain at risk of long-term decline. Conservation frameworks, including the European Union’s Habitats Directive and the Global Biodiversity Framework, increasingly recognize the importance of incorporating genetic criteria into assessments of favorable conservation status. This study provides concrete evidence supporting the integration of genomics into policy decisions.

Lessons Beyond Wolves

European wolves are emblematic of a broader conservation challenge: reconciling visible recovery with underlying genetic stability. Many species that have rebounded from historical declines may still harbor hidden vulnerabilities that threaten their long-term survival. Applying genomic tools can help conservationists detect these risks early, guide targeted interventions, and ensure that populations not only survive but thrive in the face of environmental change.

Moreover, the study underscores the importance of legal protection in facilitating natural recolonization. Wolves are recolonizing Europe primarily because of protections and ecological opportunity, not because of intensive management programs. This suggests that maintaining robust legal frameworks and connectivity corridors can be an effective, cost-efficient strategy for conserving wide-ranging species.

A Call to Action

The message from the genomes is unambiguous: European wolves have returned to much of their historical range, but they are not yet safe. Conservationists, policymakers, and the public must look beyond apparent population growth to consider the genetic health of these populations. Effective conservation requires protecting both numbers and diversity, ensuring that wolves retain the evolutionary potential necessary to adapt to future challenges. Failure to do so risks repeating the mistakes of the past, when isolated populations were lost despite seemingly stable numbers.

This research represents a critical step toward more informed wolf management in Europe. By integrating genomic data into conservation planning, Europe can ensure that wolf populations are truly viable over the long term. It also serves as a model for other species, illustrating how modern genomics can reveal hidden risks and guide more effective, evidence-based conservation strategies. The survival of Europe’s gray wolves—and the ecological roles they play—depends not just on their return, but on safeguarding the genetic foundations that will allow them to thrive for generations to come.

References and Further Reading

Ravagni, S., Battilani, D., Salado, I., et al. (2026). Misleading Success: Genomes Reveal Critical Risks to European Gray Wolves. bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.03.20.713253

The post Beyond the Numbers: The Genomic Fragility of Europe’s Gray Wolves appeared first on Rewilding Academy.

For centuries, Europe’s landscapes have been defined by human hands. Forests were cleared, fields tilled, and grazing animals were herded and confined. This human-driven mosaic created an ecosystem where open grasslands and light-demanding plant species thrived—but only under continual management. When land use ceases, nature begins to reclaim it. Shrubs and trees spread, open fields darken, and many specialized plants and insects disappear. Today, much of temperate Europe is on a slow march toward dense, shadowed woodlands—a process known as vegetation succession.

Rewilding aims to reverse this trend. By reintroducing large herbivores, conservationists hope to restore self-regulating ecosystems reminiscent of those that existed before widespread human alteration. In northern Europe, this often means substituting extinct wild species like aurochs (Bos primigenius) and wild horses (Equus ferus) with modern cattle (Bos taurus) and horses (Equus ferus caballus). The idea is simple: these animals graze, trampling and browsing vegetation, keeping the landscape open, and creating opportunities for light-demanding plants and insects to persist.

Yet, the success of this approach depends on understanding not just that these animals eat plants, but how they move across the landscape, where they choose to feed, and how their presence affects vegetation patterns over time. Until recently, these questions were difficult to answer. But a team of ecologists in Denmark has brought new clarity by tracking GPS-collared horses and cattle and combining their movement data with satellite observations of vegetation productivity. The results, published in a recent study, reveal both predictable patterns and surprising behaviors.

Grazers Follow the Green—but Not Always

One of the key findings is that both horses and cattle are drawn to open vegetation. This is not surprising: grasslands and short shrubs provide easy grazing and minimize the energy needed to move through dense brush or forest. The animals’ movement patterns, analyzed across seasons, confirmed that areas with lower vegetation density and higher connectivity were favored by both species. Horses, it turns out, tend to roam more widely than cattle, exploring forest edges and patches of shrubs that cattle generally avoid. But both species diverge in their choices when resources become scarce, particularly during winter. Horses maintain a more varied diet, supplementing grasses with leaves from deciduous trees, while cattle rely more heavily on shrubs, especially brambles like Rubus species.

The study also revealed a less expected behavior: both horses and cattle were strongly attracted to a single artificial shelter in the reserve. Despite abundant natural alternatives, the animals repeatedly returned to this human-made structure, highlighting the influence of infrastructure on space-use patterns. It’s a reminder that even in rewilded systems, subtle human interventions can steer animal behavior in ways that may not always align with ecological goals.

Grazing Shapes Vegetation—and Resilience

Beyond movement patterns, the researchers wanted to understand how grazing affects vegetation structure at the landscape scale. By overlaying animal GPS data with satellite-derived vegetation indices, they discovered a clear correlation: areas heavily used by herbivores remained more open, with lower vegetation density, while lightly used areas experienced denser growth. In other words, the presence of these grazers slows the natural progression toward shrub-dominated or forested landscapes.

Interestingly, these highly used areas were also more sensitive to environmental stress, particularly the pan-European drought of 2018. Vegetation in grazing hotspots experienced rapid declines in greenness during the drought but bounced back faster than less-frequented areas once rains returned. This resilience suggests that grazing not only shapes plant structure but may also enhance ecosystem recovery following extreme events—a crucial insight as climate change increases the frequency of droughts and heatwaves in temperate Europe.

When herbivore populations declined by roughly two-thirds after the drought, the landscape greened, but this recovery did not correspond neatly with the previous intensity of grazing. This highlights the nuanced interplay between herbivore activity, climate events, and vegetation dynamics, emphasizing that managing landscapes is rarely straightforward.

Diversity Matters

One interesting outcome of the study is how the combination of cattle and horses—two species often considered ecologically similar—creates more heterogeneity than either species alone. While both are large herbivores, their differences in diet, movement, and seasonal preferences mean that together they influence a wider range of vegetation types. In periods of resource scarcity, the divergence in space-use ensures that some areas receive more intensive grazing while others are left to regrow, promoting a patchwork of vegetation heights and densities. This patchiness is a key driver of biodiversity, providing niches for insects, birds, and smaller plants that thrive in varying light conditions.

Rewilding advocates often emphasize functional diversity—the idea that different species perform different ecological roles. The Danish study provides a clear illustration of this principle. Introducing multiple types of herbivores increases structural variation across the landscape, supporting a broader array of species and enhancing ecosystem stability.

Implications for European Rewilding

The Danish case study underscores the potential of trophic rewilding to maintain open landscapes without constant human intervention. By reintroducing year-round grazing, managers can curb vegetation densification, sustain light-demanding species, and foster heterogeneous habitats. This is particularly relevant in a European context where much of the natural landscape is no longer shaped by traditional land uses like rotational grazing or haymaking.

However, the research also points to challenges. The animals’ attraction to artificial infrastructure, such as shelters or water points, means that human placement of these structures can inadvertently concentrate grazing in specific areas. Thoughtful planning is required to balance animal welfare with ecological objectives. Similarly, understanding seasonal and species-specific behaviors is critical; a one-size-fits-all approach may not achieve the desired outcomes.

Perhaps most importantly, the study highlights how rewilding interacts with climate variability. Grazers not only shape vegetation structure but also modulate its response to extreme weather events. In a warming Europe, where droughts, heatwaves, and unusual precipitation patterns are becoming more common, large herbivores could play an increasingly important role in maintaining ecosystem function and biodiversity.

A Living Laboratory

Rewilding areas like the Danish reserve are more than just conservation projects—they are living laboratories, revealing how nature functions when allowed to self-regulate. Here, horses and cattle act as landscape engineers, creating open spaces and patchy vegetation that support a web of life far richer than any single species alone.

The study’s insights extend beyond Denmark. Across temperate Europe, many abandoned or minimally managed landscapes face rapid densification. Reintroducing large herbivores offers a tangible strategy to counteract this trend, preserving open habitats that have been vanishing since the end of traditional agricultural practices. Moreover, the nuanced understanding of space-use and vegetation dynamics gained from this research provides practical guidance for managers: which species to introduce, how to balance herd sizes, and how to integrate infrastructure without undermining ecological objectives.

Looking Forward

The Danish study also raises broader questions about the future of European ecosystems. As climate change accelerates and human influence continues to ebb and flow, managers will need to consider both ecological and behavioral factors in conservation planning. Grazers can be allies in maintaining landscape heterogeneity, but their impact depends on species composition, population dynamics, and the spatial configuration of resources.

Trophic rewilding is, in essence, an experiment in letting ecological processes govern themselves. By reintroducing species that were once lost, we can restore the interactions that shaped Europe’s landscapes for millennia. Horses and cattle may seem ordinary, even domesticated, but in the right context, they perform roles that no machinery or human management can fully replicate. They eat, they roam, they trample—and in doing so, they keep the land open, resilient, and alive with diversity.

As these herds wander the Danish reserve, they are writing a new chapter in Europe’s ecological story. One where wildness, in its broadest sense, is not just about animals running free—it’s about animals shaping the land itself, one patch of grass, shrub, or tree at a time. And for conservationists, scientists, and nature enthusiasts alike, watching this slow, subtle dance between grazers and vegetation offers both hope and a roadmap for rewilding a continent.

The post How Feral Horses and Cattle Are Shaping Europe’s Landscapes appeared first on Rewilding Academy.

Tool Use Beyond Primates

Tool use — defined as the manipulation of an external object to achieve a goal — has traditionally been seen as a hallmark of advanced cognition. Chimpanzees, certain birds like New Caledonian crows, and a handful of other species have demonstrated this ability in ways that imply problem solving and intentional action. Yet until now, no experimental evidence existed showing that cattle could independently use tools in a flexible manner.

Veronika doesn’t fashion tools the way a chimp might. Instead, she selects and manipulates objects in her environment — sticks and deck brushes — to scratch parts of her body that would otherwise be unreachable. In controlled trials, researchers presented a deck brush on the ground in random orientations and recorded how Veronika approached it. She didn’t simply swipe at it randomly. Instead, she consistently chose a functional end of the brush depending on which body region she wanted to relieve. For broad, firm areas like her back, she used the bristled end, applying a forceful, sweeping motion. For softer, more sensitive regions underneath her belly and around her udder, she strategically used the smooth handle in slower, more controlled movements. Across repeated sessions, her choices were both functionally appropriate and consistent, hallmarks of genuinely flexible tool use.

Multi-Purpose Problem Solving

What makes this discovery especially striking is not only that Veronika uses tools at all, but that she does so in different ways with one object, adapting her behaviour to meet specific needs. Until now, multi‑purpose tool use — the use of different parts of the same tool for different functions — had been convincingly documented only in chimpanzees outside of humans. The observation that a cow can display this kind of behavioural flexibility challenges narrow assumptions about cognitive capability and draws attention to how much we may be overlooking in species we have lived alongside for millennia.

Context Matters

This revelation raises important questions about how we assess intelligence in animals, especially those domesticated and managed within human systems. Cattle are among the earliest large domesticated species, shaped by thousands of years of human selection for production traits. Their behaviour — especially cognitive capacities — has largely been interpreted through the lens of efficiency, yields, and control, rather than curiosity, problem‑solving, or innovation. Many researchers suggest the lack of documented tool use in cattle until now reflects observation bias more than genuine cognitive limitations. As study authors note, most cows do not live as long as Veronika, nor do they inhabit environments rich in manipulable objects or opportunities for exploratory behaviour. In Veronika’s case, a long life, daily contact with humans who treat her as a companion animal, and access to a varied physical landscape likely created conditions where her natural capacities could emerge and be observed.

It is tempting to view Veronika as an exception — a cow with extraordinary smarts. But researchers emphasize that what is truly special may be the context, not the individual. Given time, space, and a stimulating environment, other cattle might well demonstrate similar behaviours. Tool use has likely gone unnoticed simply because the environments and interactions required to bring it out are rare in modern livestock systems.

Observing Natural Intelligence

This insight has profound implications for how we conceive of animal minds and the value of creating conditions that allow natural behaviour to emerge. In rewilding work, whether on a landscape scale or within innovative agricultural systems, the emphasis is not on training or engineering behaviour, but on restoring environments that allow animals to express the full range of their behavioural repertoires — from exploration and play to problem solving and choice. Veronika’s case illustrates that cognitive abilities are not fixed traits visible only in controlled experiments, but can be revealed when animals are afforded the time, complexity, autonomy, and diversity of experiences they would naturally seek out.

In a world increasingly defined by human control, moments like these remind us that we have much to learn from the beings we share the planet with. When we step back and observe with curiosity rather than expectation, we may find that intelligence — in its many forms — is far more widespread, nuanced, and surprising than we ever assumed.

Veronica’s owner, organic farmer Witgar Wiegele said: “Save the nature, then you protect yourself. And nature diversity is the key to survival of this planet“.

Source: Flexible use of a multi-purpose tool by a cow

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Shaped by Shadows: Coexisting with Hominins in the Tropics

In Africa and tropical Asia, large mammals shared their ecosystems with hominins for millions of years. Early human ancestors hunted, scavenged, and shaped the landscape long before modern Homo sapiens emerged. Over time, this continual pressure acted like a natural filter. Species that were especially vulnerable to human hunting—whether due to their behavior, reproductive strategies, or habitat use—were eliminated early on. The ones that survived evolved under the shadow of human presence. They became more elusive, faster to reproduce, and better equipped to avoid becoming prey. This deep-rooted coexistence gave African and Southeast Asian megafauna a distinct evolutionary advantage: familiarity with danger.

Europe’s Vulnerable Titans

When modern humans arrived in Europe around 45,000 years ago, they encountered a very different kind of wildlife—one that had not known predators like them. Species such as the woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis), the straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus), and the aurochs (Bos primigenius) had evolved in ecosystems shaped by climate, competition, and predators like wolves or sabre-toothed cats—but not by upright hunters with fire and projectiles. These animals were, in ecological terms, naïve. They lacked the behavioral adaptations to cope with human tactics. Many had long gestation periods and low reproductive rates, making it impossible for populations to recover once hunting began.

The Traits That Sealed Their Fate

A recent study analyzing 544 large mammal species—both extinct and extant—identified several traits strongly associated with extinction. Species with large body size were more frequently targeted for their meat, fat, and hides. Those living on islands or in isolated mountain ranges were especially at risk, as they had nowhere to flee. Plantigrade species—those that walk flat-footed, like bears—were also more vulnerable, possibly due to their slower, more deliberate movements. But most strikingly, species that were evolutionarily distant from those in Africa and Southeast Asia faced greater risk. Without the inherited adaptations that came from millennia of human contact, they stood little chance.

Rewilding with Eyes Open

This history carries crucial lessons for today. As Europe looks to rewild its landscapes—reintroducing bison, restoring lynx, or imagining a future with elephants or lions—it must grapple with the past. Many of Europe’s lost species lacked the evolutionary conditioning to survive humans, but that doesn’t mean their ecological roles are gone forever. Rewilding must consider not just which species once lived here, but which ones can thrive now, in a world permanently shaped by human presence. Conservation plans should prioritize species resilience, ecological fit, and the social contexts of modern landscapes.

Echoes from the Ice Age

The mass extinction of Europe’s megafauna was not inevitable—it was evolutionary. Their bodies and behaviors told a story of survival in a world without humans, and when humans came, that story ended abruptly. But understanding why it ended gives us a new kind of power: the ability to reimagine a future where such disappearances are no longer the rule. In learning from extinction, we shape the path to restoration.

reference:
Lemoine, R. T., R. Buitenwerf, S. Faurby, and J.-C. Svenning. 2025. “ Phylogenetic Evidence Supports the Effect of Traits on Late-Quaternary Megafauna Extinction in the Context of Human Activity.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 34, no. 7: e70078. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.70078.

The post Why did so many large animals go extinct outside Africa? appeared first on Rewilding Academy.

There is growing concern among stakeholders such as livestock farmers, hunters, and land managers about how wolves navigate and feed within the human-dominated Dutch landscape. Understanding what wolves eat, where, and when, is essential to inform both public debate and effective policy. Robust, science-based insights into wolf feeding behavior can help predict trends and mitigate conflicts.

To that end, researchers carry out a comprehensive, multi-year dietary analysis of wolves in the Netherlands. They combine environmental DNA (eDNA) techniques with traditional microscopic analysis of prey remains—such as hairs and bones found in wolf scat—to build a detailed picture of their diet.

Scope of the Study

In 2023, 735 wolf scats were collected and analyzed. Of these, 624 were used to determine dietary composition based on frequency of occurrence (%FO), and 427 were used to estimate consumed biomass (%BM).

The findings reveal that wild ungulates form the core of the Dutch wolf’s diet. The most common prey species were:

• Roe deer – 59% FO, 35% BM
• Wild boar – 37% FO, 29% BM
• Red deer – 18% FO, 8% BM

Domesticated livestock also featured prominently, accounting for 30% of the scats by occurrence and 23% of the consumed biomass. Of this, cattle and sheep were the most frequently represented (21% and 8% FO, respectively).

Other prey included birds (12% FO), lagomorphs (11% FO), and small mammals (10% FO).

Spatial Variation: Veluwe vs. Drenthe

The study found notable regional differences in diet between wolf packs in the Veluwe and Drenthe:

• In Drenthe, cattle made up 37% of the consumed biomass.
• In the Veluwe, wild ungulates dominated, accounting for a striking 96% of the biomass consumed.

In Drenthe, the presence of cattle in the diet is believed to be largely due to calves or carcasses from free-ranging conservation herds used in nature management. However, due to the nature of scat analysis, it is not always possible to determine whether an animal was killed by wolves or scavenged after natural death.

These differences reflect the contrasting availability of wild prey. The Veluwe hosts a relatively complete community of wild ungulates, allowing wolves to rely almost entirely on natural prey. In contrast, Drenthe has fewer wild ungulate species, leading wolves to supplement their diet with domestic animals—especially where they are accessible in open, unmanaged grazing systems.

Seasonal Shifts in Diet

Seasonal variation was also observed. During the wolf birth season (April–June), which coincides with the birthing period of many wild ungulates, wolves shifted from consuming adult ungulates to targeting more vulnerable young animals, such as wild boar piglets and red deer calves.

Conclusion

The study underscores the opportunistic and adaptive feeding behavior of wolves and offers valuable ecological insights into how they function within fragmented, human-influenced landscapes. This knowledge can directly support science-based policymaking, reduce conflict, and facilitate informed dialogue on the future of wolves in the Netherlands.

Report: Onderzoek naar het voedingsgedrag van wolven (Canis lupus) in Nederland 2023 (in Dutch)

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Uncovering Fossil Evidence in Europe

Scientists have uncovered fossil evidence that traces the snow leopard’s history far beyond its current range. A skull found in Manga Larga, Portugal, in the early 2000s suggests that these elusive felines once roamed across much of Europe during the Quaternary period, about 800,000 years ago. This discovery, far from the familiar landscape of the Tibetan Plateau, raises intriguing questions about the species’ evolutionary journey and its ability to adapt to varied and challenging environments.

While snow leopards are typically associated with steep, rocky slopes and cold, alpine ecosystems, this fossil evidence points to a much broader geographic presence in the past. Researchers now believe that snow leopards were not always restricted to high-altitude habitats, instead inhabiting a variety of ecosystems across Eurasia, from the frozen plateaus of Tibet to the temperate forests of Europe.

The Evolution of the Snow Leopard

The snow leopard’s current range is a reflection of millions of years of evolution, shaped by climatic shifts and changing landscapes. As a species, it is well adapted to the frigid, mountainous environments of its modern habitat, with thick fur and large paws that help it traverse snowy slopes with ease. However, the fossil evidence suggests that the snow leopard’s evolutionary path was far more dynamic.

During the Middle and Late Pleistocene, approximately 500,000 to 10,000 years ago, snow leopards underwent rapid adaptation in response to environmental shifts. As the climate cooled, these big cats adapted not only to colder temperatures but also to new prey species and diverse habitats. The fossil skull found in Portugal is part of a larger body of evidence indicating that snow leopards expanded across different regions during periods of environmental change.

Fossil records indicate that snow leopards once roamed regions far beyond their current habitat, likely due to the diverse topography available to them. These areas, characterised by rocky landscapes, allowed the species to thrive in conditions that offered both shelter and ample hunting opportunities. This discovery underscores the snow leopard’s adaptability to environmental shifts, suggesting that it was capable of surviving changing climates and landscapes throughout history.

A Changing Climate and the Snow Leopard’s Decline

Today, the snow leopard faces an entirely different kind of challenge. Climate change, driven by human activity, is altering the landscape of its remaining habitats. Rising temperatures threaten to shrink the snow leopard’s home range, pushing them into increasingly higher altitudes where prey is becoming scarcer and competition more fierce. These environmental pressures are compounded by human encroachment on the land, as development and farming expand into previously untouched areas.

The fossil evidence provides valuable insights into how the snow leopard may respond to these modern-day challenges. Just as the species adapted to climatic changes during the Pleistocene, researchers are hopeful that understanding the animal’s evolutionary history will aid in designing conservation strategies that help it survive in the face of current threats.

Implications for Conservation Efforts

Understanding the snow leopard’s evolutionary history is crucial for informing contemporary conservation efforts. By recognizing the species’ capacity for adaptation, scientists can develop more effective strategies for protecting the animal’s future. For example, ensuring that the snow leopard has access to a variety of habitats and prey species could help increase its chances of survival as climate change continues to impact its environment.

The snow leopard’s ability to thrive in a range of ecosystems, as evidenced by these ancient fossils, could inspire new approaches to habitat preservation. Efforts to restore landscapes outside the species’ current range may allow snow leopards to gradually move into new areas, expanding their territories in response to the challenges posed by global warming.

A Rich and Resilient Legacy

This study highlights that factors such as climate, prey availability, and, most notably, the landscape—especially mountainous regions—are key to snow leopard habitats, potentially more so than altitude. This understanding is crucial for developing effective strategies for the conservation of this iconic species.

The discovery of snow leopard fossils in Europe challenges long-standing assumptions about the species’ geographic limits and highlights its remarkable evolutionary resilience. While today’s snow leopard may seem inextricably tied to the mountains of Central Asia, its past tells a different story—one of adaptation, expansion, and survival across vast and varied landscapes.

As the snow leopard faces unprecedented challenges from climate change and human encroachment, understanding its evolutionary history will be key to ensuring its future. The fossilised remains of this extraordinary cat remind us that its survival has always depended on its ability to adapt to the ever-changing world around it. With continued research and conservation efforts, we may still be able to safeguard the future of the snow leopard, just as it has managed to endure through countless millennia.

Source:
Qigao Jiangzuo et al., Insights on the evolution and adaptation toward high-altitude and cold environments in the snow leopard lineage. Sci. Adv. 11, eadp5243(2025).DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adp5243

The post Snow Leopard Fossils in Europe Reveal Climate Resilience appeared first on Rewilding Academy.

However, these organisms also have the capability to modify their microclimate when it is not favorable to their growth. Mushrooms play important roles in regulating microclimates.

Airconditioning

Have you ever wondered how mushrooms can spread their spores without the help of a breeze? Scientists have uncovered their remarkable secret: they create wind themselves. Through evaporation, mushrooms manipulate their microclimate, leading to an increase in air humidity and a drop in temperature. This creates a dense air zone and small wind currents around the mushroom, allowing it to distribute its spores through the air. This means that mushrooms can effectively disperse their spores even in still conditions.

The research also showed that the air temperatures around different mushrooms were 1-2°C lower than the ambient air, with the mushrooms themselves being around 4°C cooler. This reduction in temperature is due to the energy consumption required for evapotranspiration.

Rainmakers

Mushrooms have a surprising ability to create rain. They release millions of tons of fungal spores into the air, which are among the largest living particles. These spores, along with plant pieces and pollen grains, can serve as the nucleus for water condensation in clouds. When water condenses on the spore surfaces, it forms rain droplets. This means that large populations of fungi can contribute to rainfall in their ecosystems.

This creates a positive feedback loop: the growth of fungi is stimulated by rain, leading to the release of large quantities of spores that further enhance precipitation. By this mechanism, mushrooms play a crucial role in promoting rainfall in the environments they inhabit.

Mycorrhiza

Nearly 90% of plant species, including crops, have symbiotic relationships with fungal networks. These relationships give plants the power to access nutrients in the soil, making fungi critical in soil building. They release nutrients in a form that can be absorbed by plant roots, reduce the risk of nutrient loss through leaching, and improve drought resilience by redistributing water to upper soil layers.

Moreover, fungal networks also play a crucial role in carbon sequestration. Ecosystems with healthy fungal networks store more carbon than those without, improving soil quality and drought tolerance, and increasing overall resilience.

Cascading impact

According to renowned mycologist and author Paul Stamets, a strain of Oyster mushrooms has the ability to clean up crude oil. In a scientific study, Stamets showed that the mushrooms were able to break down over 95% of harmful polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) into non-toxic components. Not only were the mushrooms effective in cleaning up oil spills, but they also contributed to the restoration of the surrounding environment.

Once the mushrooms began to rot, they attracted flies, leading to a chain of events where other insects and birds were drawn in, ultimately bringing in seeds to the previously polluted area. Through this process, the mushrooms played a vital role in facilitating habitat remediation and restoring the ecosystem. Stamets’ research highlights the remarkable abilities of fungi in promoting environmental sustainability.

Ecosystem restoration

Mycorrhizal fungi and mushrooms have a vital role in maintaining ecological stability and fostering growth in ecosystems. With their ability to regulate weather and their adaptive mechanisms, they serve as keystone organisms in dynamic environments. As such, they can be leveraged to restore, rejuvenate, and heal ecosystems, local climates and agricultural land. That’s why the Rewilding Academy promotes a symbiotic partnership between fungi, rewilders, and farmers.

For more information, please watch our webinar recording on fungi and rewilding.

Photo: Sasha Panarin / Scop.io

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Lucy Rees, an ethologist and writer, has been studying a population of Pottokas horses for over a decade. These ancient Basque horses were introduced into a public forest in northern Spain in 2010.

Through her ethology project, Lucy reveals the social bonds and behavior patterns within the equine population, with a focus on affiliative behavior and character definition of wild horses. This scientific and personal project began after Lucy studied horses in the wild in different countries.

Her conclusions on the synchrony of movements and absence of hierarchy within equine groups were revolutionary and have only recently been recognized by the scientific community.

Lucy’s extensive knowledge of the Pottokas, based on her observations and notes on social relationships and interconnections, is reflected in the documentary feature film “Notes About Horses”. This film showcases her most interesting conclusions, which challenge traditional human interpretations of equine behavior.

Documentary

Alla Ish Shadrova, an independent filmmaker, is preparing a documentary about the pottoka horses. She studied cinema in Barcelona and created her audio-visual production company Kinoismos in 2017. She focuses on projects that stand out for their social and innovative value in their way of realisation.

The documentary “Notes About Horses” aims to enhance understanding of horses’ affiliative behavior, evoke empathy towards these animals while respecting their nature, and ultimately improve human-horse communication by gaining a deeper knowledge of equine nature.

We asked Ish about her drive and passion for this project.

How did your background prepare you for your current work?

I think that the most important imprint of my youth is my higher education at the Moscow State University, Faculty of Chemistry. The science background enables me to analyse and look deep into the simple things, to be curious about getting new knowledge and know how to summarise. In filmmaking the ability to recap your film in a few phrases is crucial. You should know what your film is about. So, I am lucky to have these skills since my youth.

Where is your passion for filming coming from?

For me it is about dedication, passion and inner necessity to tell stories. Once, in my youth I went to Tanzania to a student conference. I remember when I came back home, I found it limiting to describe my impressions only by words. Those women singing in Swahili, the elephants standing still in Serengeti with their enormous ears, the Maasai villages, the monkeys stealing in the canteen, the mountains of rubbish in Dar es Salaam… There was an audio-visual collage in my mind, like an essay film. I guess it was the moment when I found out this inner necessity to make documentary films. So naive!

How did you get involved in documentary making?

I had a chance to join as a second camera to a small crew to make a short documentary film “The Earth Didn’t Speak” directed by Javier Briones in the mountains of Guatemala. The documentary is about a massacre of indigenous people in 1982 who decided to resist forced relocation for the construction of the Chixoy Dam. It was my very first experience to take part in a documentary film production. It showed me how powerful activism could be through documentary filmmaking. It has a huge value not only as a result but also as a process of making the film. I suppose that strong experience made me discover my passion for social storytelling.

Why did you decide to become involved in science communication and horses?

By chance. In 2016 one friend of mine told me about an ethologist, Lucy Rees, who has an alternative opinion toward equine society, considering horses anarchists. Coming from social documentary filmmaking I had a strong anthropocentric vision. The first question that I asked Lucy when I met her was “How can you avoid applying human logic to communicate to another species?” Then I read her book The Horse’s Logic and I offered her my audiovisual skills to make videos based on that book.

We are animals so we can use animal behavior to understand ourselves on a deeper level. It was my main motivation to submerge myself into the horse society with my camera ON. Working on the videos I became fascinated by the wild life of pottokas. I started to detect the details in their communication: gestures of friendship, gestures of closeness. Those gestures that make the function in the solidity and union of a band. Those gestures that in a certain way we should apply to communicate with them.

Later I visited a lot of equestrian centres and I could compare the life conditions of the domestic horses. It’s so obvious that our human society should bring more attention to the natural life of horses to understand what equine welfare means.

Observing the wild pottokas next to Lucy I noticed the absence of the dominance in equine behavior and the signs of peaceful coexistence. After having done the videos of Ethology, Biomecanique and Horsemanship our ideas have evolved into the script of a feature documentary film, which is the next step in our collaboration, a very logical one.

Is there anything you would like to achieve with your work over the next five years?

The changing of the paradigm of the interpretation of success for human beings could make us simplify our lives and expand the ecological way of thinking. To accept cooperativism and mutual aid as a base for a prosperity for human society could minimise our egocentricity and prioritise the united world. Maybe we could learn about it from wild horses.

You can support this important project!

Alla Ish Shadrova has started a crowdfunding campaign to produce this documentary film about affiliative equine behavior of wild horses. She has spent 4 years getting to know the pottoka horses and finding a way to tell their stories.

“For me this documentary would be a film about a society where the key to survival is mutual aid and peaceful coexistence. A good reflection for nowadays.” – Alla Ish Shadrova

If you like to help change our perspective on behavior of wild horses, and generate deeper insights important for rewilding and reintroduction projects – please consider donating towards this ground-breaking project!

Learn more and donate now: GoTeo
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The post Shifting Paradigms: Lucy Rees’ Groundbreaking Study of Pottoka Horses appeared first on Rewilding Academy.

Most research to date on these two problems has concentrated on protecting or restoring soils and vegetation, ignoring the potential impact that large wild animals may have on ecosystems’ capacity to mitigate climate change and adapt to it. The conservation of large animals and the fight against climate change may not always work well together, though.

In a publication in Current Biology, researchers discuss protecting animals and reducing climate change in land and marine environments. They clarify broad concepts regarding the types of biomes where and how positive and negative synergy between wildlife protection and climate change mitigation are likely to occur.

The article reviews existing research on the topic and identifies three main mechanisms by which large animals can contribute to climate change mitigation:

1. Changes in fire regime, particularly in formerly low-flammability biomes with a new or intensifying fire regime, like mesic grasslands or warm temperate woodlands;
2. Changes in terrestrial albedo, particularly where there is potential to shift from closed canopy to open canopy systems at higher latitudes; and
3. Increases in vegetation and animal populations.

The authors also note that large animals can promote ecosystem adaptation to climate change by promoting complexity of trophic webs, increasing habitat heterogeneity, enhancing plant dispersal, increasing resistance to abrupt ecosystem change and through microclimate modification.

The authors argue that conservation and restoration of large wild animals (important aspects of rewilding) should be considered as a potential strategy for addressing both climate change and biodiversity decline.

Source: Current Biology
Featured image: Keitti Järv / Scop.io

Enroll in the “Animal Behaviour in Conservation” course to learn how protecting large animals can help address climate change and biodiversity loss.

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Scientists from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences have contributed fresh insights into the population diversity of these bison through the analysis of newly discovered subfossil remains from the Balkan Peninsula. This study focused on seven ancient samples excavated from caves in Western Stara Planina, Bulgaria. Mitochondrial D‐loop (HVR1) sequence analysis was used to examine these samples, which were dated to approximately 3,800 years ago using radiocarbon analysis.

Furthermore, a phylogenetic analysis was conducted to explore the genetic connections among these samples and all available mitochondrial DNA sequences from the Bison genus, sourced from GenBank. The findings revealed that these sequences clustered with those from the extinct Holocene South‐Eastern (Balkan) wisent and the fossil Alpine population found in France, Austria, and Switzerland. Interestingly, they did not align with the recent Central European (North Sea) population or the now-extinct Caucasian population.

These results indicate that the Balkan wisent, which existed in historical times, can be considered a relic and likely an isolated population stemming from the Late Pleistocene‐Holocene South‐Western mountainous population of the wisent. The presumed migration path of this group traces from the Caucasus and Asia Minor through the Balkans to western European territories. This comparative analysis of regional data significantly enriches our comprehension of the origin and migration patterns of the European bison (wisent).

Source: New data on the evolutionary history of the European bison (Bison bonasus) based on subfossil remains from Southeastern Europe

Featured image: Arend de Haas

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The various scenarios modeled by the scientists suggest that within a relatively short timeframe of 200 to 300 years in evolutionary terms, hybridization will result in the irreversible genetic assimilation of wildcats. This would make them indistinguishable from their domestic counterparts, mirroring situations already observed in Scotland and Hungary.

Once abundant, the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), also known as the forest cat, faced extensive hunting in the 19th and 20th centuries, coupled with significant deforestation that eroded its natural habitat, causing it to vanish from parts of Europe. In Switzerland, the wildcat was nearly declared extinct, with no sightings for 25 years between 1943 and 1968. Thanks to federal protections established in 1962, the wildcat began to repopulate the forests and meadows of the Jura range, coexisting with domestic cats (Felis catus).

While they are typically considered distinct species, or even subspecies by some, wildcats and domestic cats can mate and produce fertile hybrid offspring with genomes containing elements of both species. This hybridization poses a new threat to the wildcat as it leads to gene transfers through genetic introgression. This mechanism could quickly disseminate domestic cat genes throughout the genome of the rarer wildcat, possibly leading to its extinction.

Scientists from UNIGE and the University of Zurich have previously demonstrated that wildcat genes are more extensively introgressed by domestic cat genes than the reverse. The demographic and territorial expansion of wildcats over the last half-century was identified as the primary cause of these introgressions, aligning with field observations. Bioinformatic simulation models that incorporate ecological and genetic factors suggested that about 5-10% of interactions between wild and domestic cats produce hybrid kittens. Following these findings, the computer model was further refined to project and assess the urgency of conservation efforts.

The model in the new study considers variable factors such as hybridization rates, competition for resources, and population sizes. Irrespective of the scenario, it predicts a significant introgression of domestic cat genes into the wildcat genome. Mathias Currat, a senior researcher at UNIGE, warns that this introgression remains high even when considering favorable conditions for wildcats, such as increased population sizes or a competitive edge over domestic cats in shared regions. Juan Montoya-Burgos, a co-author of the study, emphasizes that only the cessation of crossbreeding between the two species can save the wildcat from ultimate genetic replacement and extinction.

Hence, despite recent positive signs of their resurgence, the wildcat remains critically endangered. The dynamic model proposed in the UNIGE study combines demographic and spatial growth patterns of wildcat populations to forecast their future. According to various scenarios, wildcats could become indistinguishable from domestic cats in as little as 200 to 300 years, a situation already observed in Scotland and Hungary. Given the small size of the wildcat population, consisting of just a few hundred individuals, compared to over one million domestic cats in Switzerland, hybridization has a disproportionately greater impact on wildcats.

The study authors propose initiatives to significantly reduce hybridization opportunities on the fringes of wildcat territories. Strategies like sterilizing domestic cats living near farms or forests are among the suggested interventions. Female domestic cats, in particular, should be the primary focus since they are more likely to mate with male wildcats than the reverse. Taking proactive measures is not only likely to be less costly financially but also environmentally. Remaining passive could result in an irreversible threat to wildcats in the Jura region, cautions Juan Montoya-Burgos.

Source: Université de Genève
Photo: European wildcat (credits: Tambako, (CC BY-ND 2.0))

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Harvesting the reed is not only an economic activity in the Danube Delta, but it is also very important for the preservation of the local ecosystems. Taking away this biomass keeps the soil in the reed beds nutrient-poor, which prevents it from becoming a forest. Reed also filters the Danube water and therefore, harvesting the reed annually enables the delta to purify as much water as possible in the next growing season. Most reed beds, however, are hardly accessible or standing in salty water and therefore not harvested.

Wildfires

To make sure the next harvest has the highest production and contains only one-year old stalks, beds are set on fire after the harvest. Any old stalks left and reed bed undergrowth is burned, so that only new reed shoots will dominate the biomass in spring. This is a very common practice in any river delta. In 2019 however, a massive part of the Danube delta has gone up in flames, as a result of a very dry winter – possibly related to climate change. Many small fires, spontaneous or lit by people, got out of hand and turned into wildfires, consuming the dry biomass of reed beds and threatening flora, fauna and even the town of Vylkove. In this particular fire, 30 hectares of reed bed and 20 hectares of forest ground was burned.

Matter of scale

Wildfires in the delta are not necessarily bad. They create opportunities for species, increasing biodiversity by clearing areas and suppressing the establishment of dominant species. The warmth produced by the fires can even create or support favourable breeding grounds for fish. However, at a scale this large, wildfires are rather destructive than beneficial for the ecosystem.  Recolonisation of the burned area is normally taking place by the reed roots system and surrounding biodiversity, but without intact, healthy natural reed beds nearby this process is more difficult and thus takes more time. Regardless of whether or not the wildfires are a product of climate change, there are some ways of making the delta more resilient to these dry periods and make its use more sustainable.

How grazing can help to stop wildfires

Since fires are natural in the delta, the key in fire management here is not in fighting the fire, but in creating fuelbreaks in the reed bed in a sustainable way so that wildfires do not have the fuel to consume complete ecosystems. Technically, this can be achieved by harvesting reed in such a way that the landscape becomes a patchwork of areas with different reed growth stages and physical characteristics.

A less intensive way of creating more variety in reed beds is grazing by large native herbivores. Such native animal is for example the water buffalo: by eating in particular young reed sprouts their impact on reed development is significant, as these sprouts are unable to develop into full-grown reed stalks. Additionally, these large animals break and trample vegetation. Together, these animals provide similar benefits, if not better ones, then harvesting parts of reed beds. The reintroduction of water buffalos may also seem to be a human management intervention at first sight, but local ancestors of the water buffalo used to populate many riverbeds and deltas in Europe in between colder periods before the extinction of Europe’s megafauna.

Rewilding wetlands

Rewilding wetlands as a natural climate solution has positive effects on biodiversity and is a very effective, low-tech and low-cost way of wildfire prevention. In the Danube Delta, Rewilding Academy programme director Arend de Haas has been involved in the reintroduction of water buffalos – some of which are herded together with conventional cattle. Apart from their ecological function, providing ecosystem services, natural grazers are attractive to tourists as well. Local communities can benefit from their presence in multiple ways. The delta provides much potential for reintroducing large herbivores, contributing to the local economy with sustainable livelihood options, while wildfires are prevented and contained, increasing security of people and properties.

—
Report based on an internship report by Reindert Braam (Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences)

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